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"The Grove Dictionary of American Music" published on by Oxford University Press.

The current study compared the factor structures of the construct of organizational commitment between two samples of financial employees, one from the U.S. ( n = 103) and one from South Korea ( n = 109). Participants completed a 26-item questionnaire. Two factors (an affective component and a normative component) emerged for the U.S. sample; only one factor for the Koreans. Results suggest that culture should be considered when trying to assess organizational commitment.

Abstract Affirmative action (AA) is a government policy permitting employers and universities to give preferential treatment to applicants from specific (e.g. racial) groups. We present a comparative analysis of AA in six countries (India, USA, Malaysia, Canada, South Africa, and Brazil) and explain similarities among these programs according to universal psychological mechanisms and variation according to cultural–historical contexts. It appears that similarities in contextual conditions (e.g. democratic government, multi‐ethnic states) interact with ancient psychological mechanisms (e.g. fairness, cheater detection, alliance tracking) to provide at least part of the motivation for the development and expansion of AA, despite its problematic consequences. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

We explore different contexts and mechanisms that might promote or alleviate the gender effect in risk aversion. Our main result is that we do not find gender differences in risk aversion when the choice is framed as a willingness-to-accept (WTA) task. When the choice is framed as a willingness-to-pay (WTP) task, men are willing to pay more and thus exhibit lower risk aversion. However, when the choice is framed as a willingness to accept task, women will not accept less than men. These findings imply gender differences in the endowment effect. We also find that the effect size of the gender difference in risk aversion is reduced or eliminated as the context changes from tasks framed as gambles to other domains; and that attitudes toward gambling mediate the gender effect in gambling framed tasks.

This study compared the effectiveness of goal activation versus self-affirmation and a control condition as interventions for increasing performance on an evaluative task (a difficult math test; N = 78; M age = 20.3 yr., SD = 1.9). Although there has been much recent literature on the effects of activating goals, the existing literature does not examine possible spillover effects of activating goals on performance tasks. Results indicated that goal activation resulted in significant performance enhancements over both the self-affirmation and control conditions, while self-affirmation did not improve performance significantly relative to the control condition. Additionally, interest in the task, as a cue for self-regulatory resources, mediated the effect of goal activation on increased performance.

This article discusses the current and potential application of experimental methods to the study of entrepreneurship phenomena. Drawing on a review of experimental studies in entrepreneurship research, we discuss the advantages and disadvantages of experimental research designs for entrepreneurship research as a primer for those interested but not overly familiar with these methods. To advance research agendas and theory in the field, we introduce a typology of experimental manipulations that highlight alternative design choices based on the nature of their participant impact and realism of context. Finally, we provide an overview of areas of opportunity within the entrepreneurship literature for application of methods best suited to provide greater insight into the causal mechanisms at play.

Synthesizing theories of transformational leadership and self-determination, this research investigated whether transformational leaders (a) promote the autonomous motivation of their subordinates and whether (b) it results in higher autonomous motivation when subordinates hold high collectivistic values. Multilevel data were obtained from work samples in China and Canada. The results showed a positive relation between managers’ transformational leadership and subordinates’ autonomous motivation cross-culturally. Although higher collectivistic values were related to higher autonomous motivation, collectivist values did not significantly moderate the motivational effect of transformational leadership.

Stress caused by climates of fear in the workplace is sapping employee decision-making and causing conflict in the workplace. While hard to quantify, it is easy to understand why intelligent and engaged employees are the ideal: there are fewer mistakes and higher productivity. The primary metric used to frame the reasons for motivation is Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs. It is also vitally important to understand the power balance between employees and employers. By the very nature of employment, employers have less need for a particular employee unlike the employee who cannot afford to be unemployed.

This article examines the clash between stakeholder- and shareholder-based business systems resulting from an increase in foreign portfolio investment in the Japanese economy during the 1990s. An analysis of 1,108 firms between 1991 and 2000 shows that as foreign institutional investors, who were more interested in investment returns than in long-term relationships, replaced domestic shareholders, one fundamental pillar of Japan's stakeholder capitalism began to crack. Japanese firms began to adopt downsizing and asset divestiture, practices more characteristic of Anglo-American shareholder economies. The influence of foreigners, however, was weaker in firms more deeply embedded in the local system through close ties to domestic financial institutions and corporate groups. Thus, foreign investors were influential primarily in firms less embedded in the existing stakeholder system. This research contributes to debates on globalization and convergence of business systems, institutional change, and corporate governance systems.

Organizations striving to improve cycle time concentrate on developing long-term relationship with suppliers. In order to support organizational efforts, this study develops a conceptual model that explores the relationships among leadership behaviors, relational commitment and trust, information exchange, and cycle time. Although the supply chain management literature mentions leadership behavior in the context of supply chain, there are no studies that examine the impact of leadership behaviors on cycle time. This study proposes that transformational and transactional leadership behaviors of buyers increase the flow of information to suppliers directly as well as indirectly through relational commitment and trust, and these relationships also influence cycle time. However, it also proposes that the impact of transformational leadership behaviors on relational commitment and trust and information exchange is stronger than the impact of transactional leadership behaviors. Additionally, both uncertain environment and supplier base have potential to play moderation roles in the relationship between transformational leadership and relational commitment and trust and between transformational leadership and information exchange.

In this article, the authors assist teachers who are working with young students at risk for reading disabilities by helping make sense of the large—but unwieldy—scientific knowledge base. They offer a conceptual framework for thinking about beginning reading instruction and intervention across three dimensions: the content of instruction (what to teach), the delivery of instruction (how to teach), and the timing of instruction (when to teach). The authors discuss each of these dimensions and describe how teachers can use them to help organize and make sense of what we know about beginning reading instruction for students experiencing reading difficulties.

Two approaches to systematic word review were integrated into an 18-week program of extended vocabulary instruction with kindergarten students from three high-need urban schools. Words in the embedded and semantically related review conditions received systematic and distributed review. In the embedded review condition, brief word definitions were integrated into the narratives of multiple storybooks. In the semantically related review condition, in-depth word review with explicit emphasis on semantic features and associations was provided during extension activities. Systematic review resulted in an almost twofold increase in target word learning. Embedded review was effective and time efficient, whereas semantically related review was time intensive but resulted in higher levels of word learning. There was a significant gain in Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test—III standard scores following the intervention.

The purpose of this study was to examine the effectiveness of a vocabulary intervention designed to supplement research–based classroom vocabulary instruction, implemented with students who may be at risk for language and learning difficulties. Participants included 43 kindergarten students who received research–based classroom vocabulary instruction. Students with the 20 lowest scores on the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test–III administered at pretest received additional small–group supplemental vocabulary intervention. Results of within–subjects comparisons indicated that, overall, at–risk students made greater gains in word knowledge on target words that received the supplemental intervention as compared to words that received only classroom–based instruction. In addition, at–risk students who received the supplemental intervention demonstrated word–learning gains that approached those of their peers who received classroom instruction alone. Implications along with limitations of the current study and directions for future research are discussed.

The purpose of this prospective study was to determine if fiberoptic endoscopic evaluation of swallowing (FEES) maintains high intra- and interrater reliability in detecting pharyngeal dysphagia and aspiration without the addition of FD&C Blue No. 1 to food. Twenty consecutive adults referred for a swallow evaluation participated. Nine subjects received blue-dyed food and 11 subjects received regular nondyed food, i.e., yellow pudding and white skim milk. Four variables were rated: (1) the stage transition characterized by depth of bolus flow to at least the vallecula prior to the pharyngeal swallow; (2) evidence of bolus retention in the vallecula or pyriform sinuses after the pharyngeal swallow; (3) laryngeal penetration defined as material in the laryngeal vestibule but not passing below the level of the true vocal folds either before or after the pharyngeal swallow; and (4) tracheal aspiration defined as material below the level of the true vocal folds either before or after the pharyngeal swallow. Three speech–language pathologists experienced in interpreting FEES results independently and blindly reviewed the digitized videotape three times. Intrarater agreements for the four variables with blue-dyed and non-blue-dyed food trials were 100% and monochrome trials ranged from 95% to 100%. Average kappa values for interrater reliability ranged from moderate to excellent agreement (0.61–1.00) for all viewing conditions. Kappa values for blue-dyed trials versus monochrome trials were 0.83 and for non-blue-dyed trials versus monochrome trials were 0.88, indicative of excellent reliability under both viewing conditions. FEES maintains both high intra- and interrater reliability in detecting the critical features of pharyngeal dysphagia and aspiration using either blue-dyed or non-blue-dyed foods. The endoscopist, therefore, can be assured of reliable FEES results using regular, non-dyed food trials.

In the acute-care setting patients with altered mental status as a result of such diverse etiologies as stroke, traumatic brain injury, degenerative neurologic impairments, dementia, or alcohol/drug abuse are routinely referred for dysphagia testing. A protocol for dysphagia testing was developed that began with verbal stimuli to determine patient orientation status and ability to follow single-step verbal commands. Although unknown, it would be beneficial to ascertain if this information on mental status was predictive of aspiration risk. The purpose of this investigation was to determine if there was a difference in odds for aspiration based upon correctly answering specific orientation questions, i.e., 1. What is your name? 2. Where are you right now? and 3. What year is it?, and following specific single-step verbal commands, i.e., 1. Open your mouth. 2. Stick out your tongue. and 3. Smile. In a consecutive retrospective manner data from 4070 referred patients accrued between 1 December 1999 and 1 January 2007 were analyzed. The odds of liquid aspiration were 31% greater for patients not oriented to person, place, and time (odds ratio [OR] = 1.305, 95% CI = 1.134–1.501). The odds of liquid aspiration (OR = 1.566, 95% CI = 1.307–1.876), puree aspiration (OR = 1.484, 95% CI = 1.202–1.831), and being deemed unsafe for any oral intake (OR = 1.688, 95% CI = 1.387–2.054) were, respectively, 57, 48, and 69% greater for patients unable to follow single-step verbal commands. Being able to answer orientation questions and follow single-step verbal commands provides information on odds of aspiration for liquid and puree food consistencies as well as overall eating status prior todysphagia testing. Knowledge of potential increased odds of aspiration allows for individualization of dysphagia testing thereby optimizing swallowing success.

Background:  Pulmonary aspiration is a leading cause of nosocomial infection in the intensive care unit (ICU) and step-down unit (SDU). A key goal is to identify patients who exhibit increased aspiration risk before beginning oral alimentation. This study investigated the success of recommending specific oral diets to ICU and SDU patients based on passing a 3-oz water swallow challenge. Methods:  A referral-based sample of 401 ICU and 92 SDU patients were prospectively analyzed. Amount of liquid and food ingested at the next day's meal 12 hours to 24 hours after passing a 3-oz challenge and specific diet recommendations were accessed electronically from oral intake information entered on each participant's daily care sheets. Drinking and eating success, clinically evident aspiration events, and accuracy of diet order recommendations were recorded. Care providers were blinded to the purpose of the study. Results:  All 401 ICU and 92 SDU patients were successfully drinking thin liquids and eating 12 hours to 24 hours after passing a 3-oz challenge. Mean volume of liquid ingested at the next day's meal was 360 mL ± 181.2 mL for ICU and 356.4 mL ± 173.5 mL for SDU patients. Percent of meal eaten ranged from 10% to 100%. Patient care sheets indicated specific diet recommendations were followed with 100% accuracy. Conclusions:  Successfully recommending specific oral diets for ICU and SDU patients based on passing a 3-oz water swallow challenge was supported. Importantly, when a simple bedside 3-oz challenge administered by a trained provider is passed, specific diet recommendations can be made safely and confidently without the need for further objective dysphagia testing.