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The present chapter details the historical and conceptual evolution of a new paradigm in statement analysis that has developed over the past 20 years. There has been an increasing awareness of the importance of interviewing designed to facilitate the detection of deception as a necessary component of statement analysis (Colwell, Hiscock, & Memon, 2002; Hartwig & Bond, 2011; Hernández-Fernaud & Alonso-Quecuty, 1997; Koehnken, Schimossek, Ascherman, & Hofer, 1995; Vrij, Fisher, Mann, & Leal, 2006). Subsequently, the work of multiple researchers has created a zeitgeist that has nurtured and informed the development of this new paradigm. This chapter begins by providing a quick overview of the various lines of research that comprise this paradigm. Attention is then given to credibility assessment and statement content criteria that discriminate honest from deceptive responding. Then, the focus is on strategies of impression management and the subjective experience of respondents during an investigative interview. This sets the stage for a discussion of investigative interviewing structure and techniques that facilitate the detection of deception through the process of differential recall enhancement (DRE: Colwell et al., 2012). Finally, this chapter considers in detail an approach to interviewing and assessment that is representative of the new paradigm.

When reproductive competitors tolerate or cooperate with one another, they may gain particular benefits, such as collectively guarding resources or attracting mates. Shared resources may be those essential to reproduction, such as a breeding site or nest. Using the tessellated darter, a species where males but not females compete over potential nest sites, we examined site use and sharing under controlled conditions of differing competitor density. Sharing was observed even when competitor density was low and individuals could have each occupied a potential nest site without same-sex sharing. Males were more likely to share a nest site with one other when the difference in size between them was larger rather than smaller. There was no evidence that female sharing was dependent on their relative size. Fish were generally more likely to use and share larger sites, in accordance with the greater relative surface area they offered. We discuss how one or both sharing males may potentially benefit, and how male sharing of potential nest sites could relate to female mating preferences. Tessellated darter males are known to provide alloparental care for eggs but this occurs without any social contact between the alloparent and the genetic father of the young. Thus, the suggestion that they may also share sites and maintain social contact with reproductive competitors highlights the importance of increased focus on the potential complexity of reproductive systems.

Child neglect is the most prevalent form of child maltreatment in the United States, and poses a serious public health concern. Children who survive such episodes go on to experience long-lasting psychological and behavioral problems, including higher rates of post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms, depression, alcohol and drug abuse, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, and cognitive deficits. To date, most research into the causes of these life-long problems has focused on well-established targets such as stress responsive systems, including the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis. Using the maternal separation and early weaning model, we have attempted to provide comprehensive molecular profiling of a model of early-life neglect in an organism amenable to genomic manipulation: the mouse. In this article, we report new findings generated with this model using chromatin immunoprecipitation sequencing, diffuse tensor magnetic resonance imaging, and behavioral analyses. We also review the validity of the maternal separation and early weaning model, which reflects behavioral deficits observed in neglected humans including hyperactivity, anxiety, and attentional deficits. Finally, we summarize the molecular characterization of these animals, including RNA profiling and label-free proteomics, which highlight protein translation and myelination as novel pathways of interest.

In the Monty Hall dilemma, an individual chooses between three options, only one of which will deliver a prize. After the initial choice, one of the nonchosen options is revealed as a losing option, and the individual can choose to stay with the original choice or switch to the other remaining option. Previous studies have found that most adults stay with their initial choice, although the chances of winning are 2/3 for switching and 1/3 for staying. Pigeons, college students, and preschool children were given many trials on this task to examine how their choices might change with experience. The college students began to switch on a majority of trials much sooner than the pigeons, contrary to the findings by Herbranson and Schroeder (2010) that pigeons perform better than people on this task. In all three groups, some individuals approximated the optimal strategy of switching on every trial, but most did not. Many of the preschoolers immediately showed a pattern of always switching or always staying and continued this pattern throughout the experiment. In a condition where the probability of winning was 90% after a switch, all college students and all but one pigeon learned to switch on nearly every trial. The results suggest that one main impediment to learning the optimal strategy in the Monty Hall task, even after repeated trials, is the difficulty in discriminating the different reinforcement probabilities for switching versus staying.

The lexical decision (LD) and naming (NAM) tasks are ubiquitous paradigms that employ printed word identification. They are major tools for investigating how factors like morphology, semantic information, lexical neighborhood and others affect identification. Although use of the tasks is widespread, there has been little research into how performance in LD or NAM relates to reading ability, a deficiency that limits the translation of research with these tasks to the understanding of individual differences in reading. The present research was designed to provide a link from LD and NAM to the specific variables that characterize reading ability (e.g., decoding, sight word recognition, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension) as well as to important reading-related abilities (phonological awareness and rapid naming). We studied 99 adults with a wide range of reading abilities. LD and NAM strongly predicted individual differences in word identification, less strongly predicted vocabulary size and did not predict comprehension. Fluency was predicted but with differences that depended on the way fluency was defined. Finally, although the tasks did not predict individual differences in rapid naming or phonological awareness, the failures nevertheless assisted in understanding the cognitive mechanisms behind these reading-related abilities. The results demonstrate that LD and NAM are important tools for the study of individual differences in reading.

This study examined cognitive-affective styles associated with position on the Iraq war by analyzing responses posted on an online discussion forum using a computerized text-analysis program (Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count). Overall, the results were consistent with those obtained in narrative-coding studies. The pro-war group was associated with an external focus and a simplistic style of information processing. The anti-war group was associated with an internal focus and high levels of cognitive processing and negative emotion words. The “neither” group scored the highest on cognitive complexity and positive emotion words, and it was also the most balanced in terms of internal and external focus.

This study analyzed distributions of Euclidean displacements in gaze (i.e. “gaze steps”) to evaluate the degree of componential cognitive constraints on audio-visual speech perception tasks. Children performing these tasks exhibited distributions of gaze steps that were closest to power-law or lognormal distributions, suggesting a multiplicatively interactive, flexible, self-organizing cognitive system rather than a component-dominant stipulated cognitive structure. Younger children and children diagnosed with an autism spectrum disorder (ASD) exhibited distributions that were closer to power-law than lognormal, indicating a reduced degree of self-organized structure. The relative goodness of lognormal fit was also a significant predictor of ASD, suggesting that this type of analysis may point towards a promising diagnostic tool. These results lend further support to an interaction-dominant framework that casts cognitive processing and development in terms of self-organization instead of fixed components and show that these analytical methods are sensitive to important developmental and neuropsychological differences.

Despite the importance of credibility assessments in forensic settings, research shows that forensic professionals are mediocre at this task. This study tested the efficacy of a 2.5-hour training workshop on Assessment Criteria Indicative of Deception (ACID), a system of investigative interviewing and credibility assessment using verbal content analysis, in a sample of 99 forensic professionals at a maximum-security forensic hospital in the United States. Accuracy in detecting deception was assessed before and after training via written transcripts. Results showed that training improved participants' accuracy, with accuracy rates increasing from 61% to 70%. Implications of the findings and recommendations for future research are discussed.

Background: Adolescent and adult samples have shown that the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-IV (DSM-IV) abuse and dependence criteria lie on a continuum of alcohol problem severity, but information on criteria functioning in college students is lacking. Prior factor analyses in a college sample (Beseler et al., 2010) indicated that a 2-factor solution fit the data better than a single-factor solution after a binge drinking criterion was included. The second dimension may indicate a clustering of criteria related to excessive alcohol use in this college sample. Methods: The present study was an analysis of data from an anonymous, online survey of undergraduates (N = 361) that included items pertaining to the DSM-IV alcohol use disorder (AUD) diagnostic criteria and binge drinking. Latent class analysis (LCA) was used to determine whether the criteria best fit a categorical model, with and without a binge drinking criterion. Results: In an LCA including the AUD criteria only, a 3-class solution was the best fit. Binge drinking worsened the fit of the models. The largest class (class 1, n = 217) primarily endorsed tolerance (18.4%); none were alcohol dependent. The middle class (class 2, n = 114) endorsed primarily tolerance (81.6%) and drinking more than intended (74.6%); 34.2% met criteria for dependence. The smallest class (class 3, n = 30) endorsed all criteria with high probabilities (30 to 100%); all met criteria for dependence. Alcohol consumption patterns did not differ significantly between classes 2 and 3. Class 3 was characterized by higher levels on several variables thought to predict risk of alcohol-related problems (e. g., enhancement motives for drinking, impulsivity, and aggression). Conclusions: Two classes of heavy-drinking college students were identified, one of which appeared to be at higher risk than the other. The highest risk group may be less likely to “mature out” of high-risk drinking after college.

The current study examined relationships among online quiz parameters and students' classroom exam scores. The authors analyzed data from undergraduate courses across four semesters. The results revealed that regardless of the different parameters set for the online quizzes, the number of attempts that students made on quizzes was unrelated to their classroom exam scores, yet the amount of time they spent on quizzes was correlated negatively with their classroom exam scores. The results also revealed that students' scores on the online quizzes predicted their classroom exam scores, above and beyond the number of attempts, length of time allowed on quizzes, as well as their SAT Reading and SAT Math scores. The implications of these results are discussed subsequently. Future researchers may wish to provide empirical evidence on how not counting all of students' online quiz scores toward their final grade may influence students' quiz performance, given the anxiety that time limits can foster.

Parallel experiments with rats and pigeons examined whether the size of a pre-trial ratio requirement would affect choices in a self-control situation. In different conditions, either 1 response or 40 responses were required before each trial. In the first half of each experiment, an adjusting-ratio schedule was used, in which subjects could choose a fixed-ratio schedule leading to a small reinforcer, or an adjusting-ratio schedule leading to a larger reinforcer. The size of the adjusting ratio requirement was increased and decreased over trials based on the subject's responses, in order to estimate an indifference point-a ratio at which the two alternatives were chosen about equally often. The second half of each experiment used an adjusting-delay procedure-fixed and adjusting delays to the small and large reinforcers were used instead of ratio requirements. In some conditions, particularly with the reinforcer delays, the rats had consistently longer adjusting delays with the larger pre-trial ratios, reflecting a greater tendency to choose the larger, delayed reinforcer when more responding was required to reach the choice point. No consistent effects of the pre-trial ratio were found for the pigeons in any of the conditions. These results may indicate that rats are more sensitive to the long-term reinforcement rates of the two alternatives, or they may result from a shallower temporal discounting rate for rats than for pigeons, a difference that has been observed in previous studies.

This study explored the role that positive emotions and emotional intelligence play in experiential learning. Students' field practicum journals were analyzed using the Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count Program (LIWC) and a measure of emotional intelligence was obtained using the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT). Positive emotion words were robustly associated with almost all dimensions of supervisors' ratings of students' performance, but showed weak associations with students' ratings of perceived benefits associated with their practicum experiences. Overall El scores were correlated with several of the supervisor rating items and the Facilitating Thought and Managing Emotions subscales of the El were robustly correlated with many of the student rating items. This study thus yielded a more differentiated view of the role of positive emotions and emotional intelligence in adaptive functioning and underscored the importance of using multiple informants to assess a complex construct such as successful experiential learning. (C) 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

This study examined fMRI activation when perceivers either passively observed or observed and imitated matched or mismatched audiovisual (”McGurk”) speech stimuli. Greater activation was observed in the inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) overall for imitation than for perception of audiovisual speech and for imitation of the McGurk-type mismatched stimuli than matched audiovisual stimuli. This unique activation in the IFG during imitation of incongruent audiovisual speech may reflect activation associated with direct matching of incongruent auditory and visual stimuli or conflict between category responses. This study provides novel data about the underlying neurobiology of imitation and integration of AV speech. (C) 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

In-depth study of the human genome holds the potential to provide needed focus on genetic disorders that affect hundreds of thousands of children and significantly affect their development. Neurofibromatosis Type-1 (NF-1) is one of the most common genetic disorders that affect neurological, cognitive, social, and physical development. NF-1 affects all racial groups and both genders equally. NF-1 occurs in about 1 in 2,500 to 3,300 individuals in the population. The incidence rate at birth is about 0.0004 births in the United States and is growing in prevalence. Children with NF-1 experience a range of psychomotor and cognitive impairments that affect the quality of their social lives and their learning and academic achievements. Interventions to address the psychosocial and educational needs of children with NF-1 include a range of social and academic support services, which are most effective when they are comprehensive, involve a multidisciplinary team of educational and health experts, and include a focus on supporting and empowering family members to be effective caregivers. Efforts to address the needs of children with NF-1 and to provide adequate support to their families have significant policy implications for local, state, and federal officials.

There is a need within the criminal justice systems of many countries to create a valid and applicable system of investigative interviewing and credibility assessment. The present study assesses the general validity one such system, called Assessment Criteria Indicative of Deception (ACID). ACID comprises interviewing strategies that facilitate the detection of deception and content criteria that highlight differences in verbal behavior. Sixty university undergraduates performed a staged theft under time pressure and with incentives designed to increase external validity. The participants were interviewed and assessed using the ACID procedure. Half of them were instructed to answer honestly and the other half to deny his/her participation in the theft. Results showed that honest statements were longer, more vividly detailed, and more spontaneously structured than deceptive statements. Also, the addition of affective details as a dependent measure significantly improved the ACID system. Overall, 48 of 60 statements were accurately classified (26 of 30 honest statements and 22 of 30 deceptive statements). The ACID procedure was effective and benefited from the addition of affective details. The strengths and weaknesses of this study are discussed in light of basic research into deception and potential forensic application.

This study examined changes in Alan Greenspan's language use across the economic cycle by analyzing his testimonies and speeches using the Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count Program (LIWC), which is a widely used text analysis program. Consistent with expectations, Greenspan showed an increase in the composite measure of psychological distancing as well as a decline in the measure of cognitive complexity between the economic expansion and downturn periods. Interestingly, these patterns of changes became more pronounced during the purported economic recovery period. In contrast to the measures of psychological distancing and cognitive complexity, the measure of emotionality remained relatively stable across the economic cycle.

Recent evidence suggests that smoking during the night is an indicator of nicotine dependence and predicts smoking cessation failure. Night smokers are likely to experience disturbance to their sleep cycle when they wake to smoke, but we are not aware of the prevalence of night smokers' self-reported sleep disturbance. Because sleep disturbance also predicts smoking cessation failure, we examined how the pre-cessation risk factors of night smoking and sleep disturbance, and their co-occurrence, predict smoking cessation failure in a 6-week double-blind randomized controlled trial examining whether naltrexone augments the efficacy of the nicotine patch (O'Malley et al., 2006). Smokers (N = 385) completed the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (Buysse, Reynolds, Monk, Berman, & Kupfer, 1989) and a single item of waking at night to smoke pre-cessation. Smoking status was determined at weeks 1, 6, 24, and 48 weeks after quitting. The two main findings were: (a) night smokers reported significantly greater sleep disturbance than nonnight smokers; and (b) smokers with co-occurring night smoking and sleep disturbance experienced significantly greater risk for smoking than smokers with neither risk factor. Results suggest that individuals who both wake during the night to smoke and report clinically-significant sleep disturbance represent a high-risk group of smokers. Future smoking cessation treatment might incorporate strategies related to managing these smokers' sleep habits and physiological dependence on nicotine in order to bolster their cessation outcomes.

Parallel experiments with rats and pigeons examined reasons for previous findings that in choices with probabilistic delayed reinforcers, rats' choices were affected by the time between trials whereas pigeons' choices were not. In both experiments, the animals chose between a standard alternative and an adjusting alternative. A choice of the standard alternative led to a short delay (1 s or 3 s), and then food might or might not be delivered. If food was not delivered, there was an "interlink interval," and then the animal was forced to continue to select the standard alternative until food was delivered. A choice of the adjusting alternative always led to food after a delay that was systematically increased and decreased over trials to estimate an indifference point--a delay at which the two alternatives were chosen about equally often. Under these conditions, the indifference points for both rats and pigeons increased as the interlink interval increased from 0 s to 20 s, indicating decreased preference for the probabilistic reinforcer with longer time between trials. The indifference points from both rats and pigeons were well described by the hyperbolic-decay model. In the last phase of each experiment, the animals were not forced to continue selecting the standard alternative if food was not delivered. Under these conditions, rats' choices were affected by the time between trials whereas pigeons' choices were not, replicating results of previous studies. The differences between the behavior of rats and pigeons appears to be the result of procedural details, not a fundamental difference in how these two species make choices with probabilistic delayed reinforcers.

Previous research on the effectiveness of clickers has found their use to be positively associated with exam scores but not without methodological issues that hinder the conclusions that can be drawn. To address these limitations, the current studies isolated the effects of clickers from the effects of questions presented with clickers. Study 1 showed that students who did not use clickers to respond to questions but raised their hands performed better on exams than students who saw the same questions and responded with clickers. Study 2 found no relationship between clicker use and exam scores, which suggests that prior research claims about the effectiveness of clickers may have been premature given that clicker use was confounded with question use in those studies. Suggestions for future research are also provided.

Valid screens for feigned cognitive impairment are a fundamental component of any forensic assessment. The TOMI is a verbally administered, two-alternative forced-choice screen for feigned cognitive impairment in competence to stand trial (CST) evaluations. The present study provided further validation for the use of this tool in a sample of 82 forensic inpatients, the second investigation of the TOMI in a real-world, psycholegal context. Using three independent external criteria-the Test of Memory Malingering (TOMM) Trial 2 score, TOMM Retention Trial score, and a clinical treatment team decision-and these combined criteria-the Legal Knowledge scale (TOMI-L) evidenced high levels of sensitivity and specificity and excellent negative predictive power (NPP). The General Knowledge scale (TOMI-G) demonstrated poor sensitivity but high specificity and NPP. The authors discuss the utility of both scales in guiding and streamlining more thorough assessments of response styles in CST evaluations.